• Types: Two types – semiferritic and stabilized ferritic.
• Martensitic Transformation: Semiferritic alloys can partially transform to martensite, making them brittle. Stabilized ferritics avoid this with titanium or niobium stabilizers.
• Oxidation Protection: Shielding gas prevents oxidation. Stabilized ferritic alloys should avoid nitrogen exposure.
• Embrittlement Risk: Chromium and molybdenum alloyed grades can form brittle phases, such as σ and α’.
• Welding Unweldable Alloys: Some semiferritics (e.g., alloy 430) are generally not weldable due to brittleness.

• Heat-Affected Zone Cracking: Prone to cracking due to the martensitic transformation during cooling. Preheat and interpass heating help mitigate this, especially with higher carbon content.
• Post-Weld Heat Treatment: A final heat treatment is generally required to achieve optimal properties.
• Filler Material: Austenitic fillers (e.g., 309L) may be used if mechanical requirements permit, reducing thermal stress and cracking risk.

• Ferritic Solidification: Duplex stainless steels solidify ferritically, enhancing hot-cracking resistance.
• Heat-Affected Zone Sensitivity: High chromium and molybdenum content increase susceptibility to intermetallic phase formation at high temperatures, affecting toughness and corrosion resistance. Minimize time in critical temperature ranges (500-900 °C).
• Nitrogen: Essential alloying element; welding requires nitrogen-inclusive shielding gas.
• Thermal Expansion and Conductivity: Moderate thermal expansion and higher conductivity allow for higher heat inputs, but excessive heat can cause embrittlement or intermetallic phases.

• Shielding: Essential to prevent oxidation and maintain alloy composition, particularly for titanium and aluminum elements.
• Filler Material Matching: Filler metal must match base metal properties unless specific mechanical properties are not required.
• Post-Weld Heat Treatment: Solution annealing is necessary to address weld solidification segregation.
• Hot Cracking: Some austenitic PH grades are susceptible to hot cracking due to high titanium or aluminum content.
• Slag Formation: High alloying content may lead to slaggy welds, which require careful handling to ensure weld quality.

Pros:

• Detects surface and near-surface defects.
• Quick and relatively affordable.
• Portable and simple equipment.
• Works well on ferromagnetic materials.

Cons:

• Limited to ferromagnetic materials (e.g., steel, iron).
• Cannot identify deeply embedded flaws.
• Surface preparation required for effective results.
• Requires assessment by a skilled operator.

Pros:

• Detects surface defects on any non-porous material (metals, plastics, ceramics).
• Inexpensive and simple to perform.
• Highly portable.

Cons:

• Limited to surface defects; cannot detect subsurface flaws.
• Requires thorough cleaning before and after testing.
• Not suitable for porous materials.
• Relies on proper application of the dye and inspection under appropriate lighting.

Pros:

• Can detect internal defects (e.g., cracks, porosity, inclusions).
• Provides a permanent record (film or digital image).
• Effective for complex weld geometries.

Cons:

• Expensive and requires specialized equipment.
• Involves health and safety risks due to radiation exposure.
• Requires skilled personnel for interpretation of images.
• Not effective for very thick materials without increased radiation power.

Pros:

• Highly accurate in detecting subsurface defects.
• Provides precise location, size, and shape of flaws.
• Can be used on thick materials.
• Portable equipment.

Cons:

• Requires skilled operators to interpret results accurately.
• Difficult to use on very thin materials or rough surfaces.
• Limited effectiveness on irregularly shaped welds or coarse-grained materials like cast iron.

Pros:

• Highly effective for detecting leaks in sealed or pressurized systems.
• Methods like helium leak testing are extremely sensitive.
• Can identify even small leaks.

Cons:

• Some methods require expensive equipment (e.g., helium leak detection).
• Time-consuming for large systems.
• Surface preparation or pressurization may be necessary.
• May not identify the exact location of the defect without additional inspection.